Seminar Paper --> Freud and Psycholanalysis

Sigmund Freud was born in Moravia (which was part of the Austrian empire) in 1856 to an Austrian family of non-observant Jews. He and his family then moved to Vienna where Freud trained as a doctor in the University of Vienna some years later, he then developed his specialism into brain anatomy at a general hospital (1882) and collaborated with neurologist Joseph Breuer where he treated hysterical patients with hypnosis. Three years later he moved to Paris and studied under neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot until 1886 where he progressed into his own private medical practice.

Freud actually began with the same starting point as Karl Marx; humans are unhappy because they are divided and are alienated from themselves however, goes on to attack Marx. Marx believes that in a communist society the needs of the species self would become dominate, he believes that human nature is able to develop and evolve. Freud rejects this because it is too idealistic and our basic needs are not of kind quality, he believes that humans deepest needs is in fact aggression - we all think in order to cause destruction but we learn to suppress it. Freud believed that society is  full of suffering because humans are slowly deteriorating (through age), because of nature but mainly because of interaction with other people. He believes the answer is psychoanalysis however, this will not work for everyone and has outlined some coping mechanisms - for example - chemical solutions - isolation - religion - finding a socially acceptable way to channel aggression (sport/work).

He also shows similarities to Plato in the way he looks in to human behaviour and follows his idea of the tripartite self, with reason, spirit and desire as the three parts of the self, with reason controlling spirit and desire. Plato used an allegory of a chariot to explain how the the self (with horses as spirit and desire and reason as the chariot rider) are reining them in. However, Freud thought that reason was the weakest and could not control spirit and desire because humans are irrational.

Freud was seen to be the father of the psychoanalytic theory of the late 19th in to the 20th century.
Freud didn't regard himself as a philosopher, he actually regarded himself as a scientist and an inventor of new science. Freud was hugely doubted by professionals but he was, and still is to this very day, an extremely influential theorist, we cannot help it but we all live in a Freudian world, even now. Freud may be influential within society, but one practical aspect of his first theory has been pushed to one side - this is the use of hypnosis as a means of treating hysteria and mental illness. Hypnosis was stopped by Freud himself after publishing a work on hysteria in 1895 and was replaced with therapy (psychoanalysis) which was essentially exchanging words with the patient. Freud's psychoanalytic theory was summed up in to two theses - the first being that the greater part of our mental life is unconscious which linked in with the idea that Freud believed that the mind was divided into three parts (conscious mind, the part in touch with reality and what we know now in this exact moment). Preconscious mind is where knowledge and memories are stored until they are needed and the unconscious mind is knowledge we do posses but we are not aware of it - Freud believed that this knowledge is the most deepest desires. Freud went on to show how there is evidence of the unconscious through everyday mistakes, dreams and neurotic symptoms, he believes these were not accidental but contained hidden, true meaning. The second theses was said to be that sexual impulses are very important as the cause of mental health. The method of therapy was used instead of hypnosis because the hysterical symptoms presented were a result of memories of psychological trauma which the patient is not immediately aware of because it has been repressed into the subconscious. Within Freud's therapy, which is common to what is practised by therapists now, the patient was encouraged to talk about what ever was on their mind which would eventually lead to the patient blurting out something horrendous from their past. Freud became more and more convinced that relevant traumas happened in infancy and had sexual content. Because of Freud's clear obsession with sex and infancy separately and together as the cause of psychological trauma led to the estrangement with his former colleague Joseph Breuer, as a result Freud became somewhat isolated from all colleagues. It was around this time (1900) that he published probably his most important works -  'The Interpretation of Dreams', where he argues "dreams no less than neurotic symptoms were a coded expression of repressed sexual desires". Within 'The Interpretation of Dreams' Freud said that humans dream in code and dreams have a symbolic form that is given by the dreamer their self, and once it has been stripped of the symbolic form the dream can be revealed as sexual and/or oedipul - he believed that all dreams could be given sexual significance. But in order to show the sexual significance Freud believed you had to know what the dreamer associated a particular item or topic with (sexual association).

When Freud comes to interpreting the pattern of the unconscious mind the focus is on sex and sexual development in particular, it was very controversial for the time but Freud didn't care. Freud believes that there are three ways in the unconscious; 1. through everyday trivial mistakes 2. reports of dreams 3. the symptoms of neurosis, the exercise of free association in analysis reveals patterns of the unconscious. Sexual development is key here and particularly infantile sexuality. Freud states that there are stages within the development of infantile sexuality which beings with the oral stage, this is when the pleasure is focussed on the mouth. This is then followed by the anal stage which is between the ages of 1 and 3 years old which is focussed on eliminating bodily wastes during toilet training which has conflict between the Id and the Ego in terms of gratification of the task. Next is the Phallic stage where the child become almost obsessed with on their own genitals and this is where Freud believes that a male child will become attracted to his mother and will resent his father's possession of her, which Freud would say was an unconscious desire and the Ego is preventing the Id from getting what is wants. However, the child will start to worry that his father will castrate him so the attraction to his mother will vanish and will begin to identify with his father. This is called the Oedipus Complex, Freud began developing the female equivalent (Mutatis Mutandis) but it was never completely figured out.

Freud later replaced that of the unconscious with the Id, Ego and Superego and suggested that as long as the Ego is in harmony with the Id and superego then all will be well. But if, for any reason, these are not in harmony mental disorders will develop and specifically neuroses will develop if the Ego and Id were not in harmony, if the Id and the Superego were not in harmony it will cause melancholia and depression and finally psychoses will develop if the Ego is in conflict with the world. The Id, Ego and Superego can be linked to Plato - with the Id being Plato's appetite (epithumetikon) (desire of food and sex), the Ego is similar to Plato's reasoning power (logistikon) (part of the soul most in touch with reality) and the Superego resembles Plato's temper (thumoeides) (non-rational punitive force of morality - source of shame and self-directed anger).

Popper found great doubt in Freud's work and theory he believes that you cannot prove what Freud believes so how can you take it further. Even though Freud was doubted he was extremely influential in the 20th century and is still influential now.

Modernism - Literary and artistic modernism

Nietzsche and Schopenhauer
Nietzsche and Schopenhauer had a certain love for music and are seen to be the philosophers of music and art.
Schopehauer believed that music is just organised sound.

We all like different music and believe a certain type of music is 'better' than another, we all have different tastes. We don't know when a piece of music is at complete perfection or when a note is the perfect one, although, we do know when we are close to it. We all have an aesthetic response to music and anything artistic BUT music will have the strongest aesthetic response of them all.
--> this links to Plato (Kant can be seen as a revival of Plato), Plato's cave --> things are different when they are not being observed and the theory of 'perfect forms'.

Schopenhauer --> The World as Will and Representation
-Schopenhauer has the same views as Kant, more or less, the difference is --> Schopenhauer believes there is only one noumena.

Buddhism --> everything is a dream. nothing is there. nothing is real. --> the meditation (OMM) = the sound the world made before the world began. --> how do we know, if there was nobody there to hear it???

-The essence of the universe (the principle of existence) - why is there being-ness? --> Nietzsche believes that it is because of God but why did God let things go wrong then??? (existence itself is stronger than God)

The will (like Kant's noumena)
(the will to be/the will to survive)
(the will to power --> Nietzsche)

Schopenhauer believed that you must control every desire that you have --> links to Buddhism and meditation. Schopenhauer believed that the only possible way to overcome desire (the we all feel) is through music(art).
Freud believed the complete opposite and thought that humans can not control their own desires, they must give in to the pleasure of desire.

Economics

Adam Smith 

- The Wealth of Nations --> why is one country richer than another?
BECAUSE --> of too much state intervention = a poor country.

Moral Philosophy --> maximising pleasure - you live for yourself (the law of unintending..) - trying to help people but actually damaging them.
If we stop benefits from being given to the poor who do not work, then the poor will learn to work and as a result stop being poor. They will become free and everyone will be rich.

David Ricardo 
-more of a metaphysical view - spirit of value.
-value is created --> through how much labour is associated with it.
For example diamonds--> more parts to the labour and harder to come by than the production matchsticks therefore diamonds are much more valuable than matchsticks.

Thomas Malthus
-Humans will always starve to death --> need to survive (Darwinism)
The UK is always 4 days away from starvation - marriage stops this.

Karl Marx --> features Ricardo and Malthus
-because of profit there is a fatal flaw in that the people who grow the food will not be able to buy it themselves because all the value comes from the labour and the profit=£5 of the £10 and the workers are paid £5. They only earn £5 but they cannot buy the product they have made because it has to be sold for £10 in order to make a profit.

-money has an affect on peoples behaviour --> Modernists
Marx - deflationary gap = solved by printing more money (Keynes) BUT if money just keeps getting printed it will result in inflation.

Karl Popper

Karl Popper - 1902-1994

Born in Austria to Jewish parents and fled the Nazis.

Books - Logic of Scientific Discovery - attacks --> empiricism and logical positivists

- Open Society and its Enemies - attacks --> tribalism, Plato (Hobbes and Marx) and Utopianism

- The Poverty of Historicism - attacks --> Marx and Hegel (anti-teleogical).

Logical Positivists 

- Problem of the metaphysical and demarcation.

• Vienna Circle - Schlick and Neurath et al
• Reaction against romantic metaphysics
• Wanted to use science to clean up philosophy
• Statements that can't be verified = 'gibberish' --> metaphysical statements have no meaning - so cannot be verified.

Wittgenstein --> "Of that which we can not speak, we must remain silent".

Descartes is rejected --> "I think therefore I am" is REJECTED because it is non verifiable so it is 'gibberish'

Popper thought that in order to progress we needed to falsify things. By doing this we can then have proper knowledge. Theory of Induction - scientific theories couldn't be proved. He thought the logical positivists were wrong and what marked out science was its potential to be falsified. Popper believed that observation is always selective - we inherit the past - we cannot escape it.

Hume - problem with induction is that it is unreliable and Popper offered an acceptable solution to the problem of induction. 

Einstein's theory of relativity was tested and passed, but if it had failed he would have had to give up the theory. This contrasts with the Freudians and the Marxists.

The Theory of Falsification - scientific principle which had been repeatedly tested was not necessarily true, it just hadn't been proved false.

Science and Certainty

Science - "the truth"

The absolute truth can never be known, of anything, however, people will always have an honest view on something. The universe is unknowable --> it cannot be known because of phenomena. Phenomena is something that you are directly able to look at and as the universe is so large, there is no way to directly look at it therefore it cannot be known.

Kant divides truth up into two types -    

1. A Priori --> something that is true before you experience it ( for example, a triangle has three sides, you know it has three sides).
2. A Posteriori --> facts that are dependent on measurements, surveys, graphs, charts etc.

Aristotle, Bacon and Newton believed in matter in motion - that eventually you will find everything out - a perfect picture of 'truth'. But this is now no longer important due to Einstein and such scientists.

Science before Kant was a mirror theory of mind, reality and causation - in a cosmos of objectively independently existing things. Plato also believed that forms existed independently of human conciousness.
Kant's view was that cosmos is actually like a computer game in that the objects, landscape, characters, space and time etc are all created in conciousness and they fade away into something that no longer exists as the computer game develops and moves along.

But Bacon, Newton and the empiricists (mechanical Materialists) believe the cosmos is the sum total of many different things - some are very small or large but all are there even when they are not being observed they are still always there.

Nietzche - nothing causes existence - it just is.

From Kant, Schopenhauer and Nietzche - we have to inherit the idea of existence because nothing causes something to exist, nothing causes any existence - existence is a necessary precondition of perception.

Logic - Deduction VS Induction
Deduction --> moving from a general proposition to a particular proposition.
It creates truths from rules - all swans are white - this is a swan - therefore it is white. (belonging to a category called swan causes the object to be white).
It is impossible to doubt the axiom in this system.
Induction --> moving from a particular proposition to a general proposition (generalising it).
The opposite reaction to this would be to deny that things come from 'norms' - for example - white swans are actually black.

From Newton to Einstein
-The Copernican Revolution-
Does the Earth really orbit the Sun? Where is up, where is down? Where is the centre of the universe?
If Newton's laws of motions describe motion from one point to another. This can therefore be any motion if there are an infinite distance.

-Perception is subjective-

The Rise of Science
Copernicus
Kepler
Galileo
Newton
These four men were considered to be the creators of science.

Seminar Paper - Nietzsche: The Birth of Tragedy

Friedrich Nietzsche : October 15th 1844 - August 25th 1900 

Nietzsche was a German philosopher (who began as a classical philologist), poet, composer and classical philologist of the 19th Century. His works ranged from different subjects including religion, contemporary culture, morality, philosophy and science and based on different influences such as philosophy, existentialism, nihilism and post-modernism. Furthermore, he was particularly fond of the ideas of metaphor, irony and aphorism. Nietzsche's style was very radical and focussed on the questioning of the value and objectivity of the truth, his controversial work and ideas were not always easily understood and accepted.


Nietzsche had strong ideas about - death of god, perspectivism, the ubermensch, amor fati, the external recurrence and will to power.
And "life - affirmation" which was a central idea in which involves honest questioning of all doctrines that drain life's expensive energies, however socially prevalent the views are.


After Nietzsche served in the Prussian forces during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71 he contracted numerous infections which may have contributed to his dementia later on in life, and maybe contributed to his ideas.

'The Birth of Tragedy'

In 1872 Nietzsche wrote and published his first book - 'The Birth of Tragedy' which was not well received by other academics and it affected Nietzsche's career for the worst. However, it had a great impact on the history of  western thought through the interpretation of the 'serenity' of Greek culture.


The preface contains Nietzsche stating that he contradicts himself throughout 'the birth of tragedy'...


Chapters 1-15 contain ideas and philosophy on the nature of Greek tragedy
Chapters 15-25 focus on modern culture in terms of the decline in traditional Greek tragedy and the significance and detailing on the possible rebirth.


Chapter 1 shows that Nietzsche has something serious to say about German culture in terms of the Greeks. He compares Dionysus and Apollo with Men and Women - there is an opposition amongst both but in order to procreate (art and life) the oppositions need to be resolved - Dionysus and Apollo must unite to create high art; they may have differences but the differences are necessary as well as destructive.


Nietzsche focusses on the dream analogy in chapter 4 in order to look at the question of the naive artist. Naive is "the complete absorption in the beauty of appearance". 
During everyday experience the real conscious life is preferable but at the metaphysical stage, the dream state is preferable to the awake stage. Because in the dream state a balance can be maintained - primal unity. 
"The Truly-Existent and Primal Unity, eternally suffering and divided against itself, has need of the rapturous vision, the joyful appearance, for its continuous salvation…"  ---> this quote shows that Nietzsche may well have Christian influences - with words such as - suffering, salvation and joyful.
The conscious world shows only one layer of experience whilst the dream word shows a double layer of experience or metaphor - "appearance of an appearance".
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This links to a similar state in naive art - which is also seen to be "appearance of an appearance".
'Dionysian' and 'Apollonian' state. This may seem contradictory, as previously he has spoken of the 'Apollonian Greek' and the 'Dionysian Greek', but in this chapter he shows that the Dionysian Greek is really an Apollonian Greek who has seen and understood the suffering that lies beneath the veil of Apollonian appearance.

In chapter 5 and 6 of 'The Birth of Tragedy' Nietzsche goes into subjectivity and objectivity in terms of poets and overall 'art'. Homer was an Apollonian naive artist and was objective whereas, Archilochus (who wrote in the 6th century) was passionate and furious as a lyric poet and was subjective; these two poets show the meeting of the 'objective' and the 'subjective' poet. Nietzsche believed that the 'subjective' was completely without merit BUT the Greeks thought that Archilochus was a great poet. 

"The subjectively willing and desiring man...can never at any time be a poet". 

Nietzsche believes it is essential that Dionysus and Apollo have to unite together to create 'art' and this is shown in his argument ---> 'art' must be created without the influence of subjectivity ---> Dionysus and Apollo allow this to succeed. 

Nietzsche questioned the Greeks for a long time and then in terms of the importance and significance of science.


- 'What is the point in science' - 'Where did it come from?' - 'Is there as pessimism of strength?' -


Nietzsche then went on to look at science from the perspective of art and of the artist which led into looking at the art from the perspective of life because science is dubious.


Furthermore, Nietzsche spent time looking at pessimism.


- 'Is there as pessimism of strength?' - 'Is pessimism necessarily the sign of collapse, destruction and disaster?' - 'Is there a way of suffering from the fullness of life?' - 


And in terms of Greek culture.
Was Epicurus an optimist because he was suffering? 


Nietzsche showcased a great deal of bias when deciding if something is considered 'art' or not and he formed an extremely accurate definition of what makes 'art' - the definition excludes the opera and subjective self-expression. 


Chapters 7 and 8 highlight the differences between ancient traditional tragedy (which had no chorus and no actors) and 5th century tragedy (which had chorus and actors). Nietzsche defines the relationship between the actors and the chorus within the tragedy - the chorus was seen to be the most important and significant part of the tragedy and it was seen to be the Dionysian way.


"Optimistic dialectic drives music out of tragedy with the scourge of its syllogisms: that is, it destroys the essence of tragedy, which can be interpreted only as a manifestation and illustration of Dionysian states, as the visible symbolizing of music, as the dream-world of Dionysian ecstasy."


This quote is from Chapter Fourteen of 'The Birth of Tragedy' and shows Nietzsche's continuous emphasis on the importance of music in tragedy. According to Nietzsche music is how the Dionysian essence reaches the audience, who is the "aesthetic listener." Music can reach everybody, it is like a lingua franca and it has the ability to give a deep significance to Apollonian appearances. Nietzsche regards music extremely highly. 


First, opera, as a recitative art, combines text with music in such a way that the music must always be slave to the text. Second, opera champions an idyllic conception of primitive man that sooths us with its quaintness but that cannot satisfy our metaphysical needs. Third, opera suggests that every man is an artist, and thus it must cater to the cheerful tastes of the laity.


Nietzsche presents Dionysus as an uplifting alternative to the salvation offered by Christianity - Christianity says that man renounces life on earth and should focus purely on heaven - HOWEVER Dionysus believed that you should immerse in life now - live life in the moment. Nietzsche liked this idea and he thought that Apollo is required along side Dionysus in terms of Greek culture and in real tragic art elements of Dionysus and Apollo were inevitably entwined and music was at the forefront of the art form as the spoken word alone does not go far enough. Music is superior in Nietzsche's eyes. 


The chorus within a Greek tragedy is needed to voice the essence of Dionysus as a form of representation. This will allow the viewer to get lost in Dionysian ecstasy. 

Nietzsche had great faith in the human soul, even though he had great criticisms of human culture and he thought we need to accept the culture of Dionysus.


Nietzsche believed that Euripides was the murderer of art. Euripides introduced different ways of representing art as a part of Greek culture and they were derived from and seemed similar to Socratic ideas based on knowledge. This led to Euripides disregarding the use of music as the main part of the tragedy. 


Furthermore, a rebirth of tragedy is what Nietzsche wanted after Euripides and to move away from the Socratic technique. 
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-NIETZSCHE SEES WAGNER AS THE ROUTE TO THE REBIRTH-

Between the years of 1873 and 1876 Nietzsche published four long essays - 

1. David Strauss: the confessor and the writer
2. On the use and abuse of history for life
3. Schopenhauer as Educator
4. Richard Wagner in Bayreuth

These essays contained a great deal of critique on culture and especially challenged the developing German culture - Nietzsche was influenced by Schopenhauer and Wagner here.

However, he was alienated by his friend Wagner because of Wagner's superiority of German Culture which Nietzsche thought was a huge contradiction which all led to Nietzsche distancing himself from Wagner. 

In 1878 Nietzsche wrote 'Human, All Too Human' which basically showed his reaction against the pessimistic philosophy of Wagner and Schopenhauer. 

In 1882 Nietzsche wrote 'The Gay Science' 

The Death of God

"God is Dead" occurs in several of Nietzsche's works. Most commentators regard Nietzsche as an Atheist and Nietzsche frequently called himself an 'immoralist'; he criticizes Christianity, Kantianism and  Utilitarianism which leads in to the idea that God is dead. 

BUT

Kaufmann suggests that the statement - "God is Dead" - reflects a subtle understanding of divinity AND in Nietzsche's view the combination of the recent developments in modern science and the increasing secularisation of European society had effectively 'killed' the Abrahamic God.

Furthermore, Nietzsche claimed that the death of God would lead to the loss of any universal perspective on anything and would lead to the no real sense of the truth, as well as this, the death of God would lead to unimaginable violence - Nietzsche stated this after Darwin's theories on evolution which suggested that he knew about how the world can evolve which supported his idea that violence could evolve. 

The death of God could either lead to Perspectivism - where multiple, diverse and fluid perspectives are retained OR it could lead to Nihilism - where the belief that nothing has any importance and life lacks any purpose at all so the death of God doesn't lead to anything extraordinary.

The Will To Power

This provides a basic understanding of human behaviour.

Nietzsche attacked Schopenhauer's notion of an aimless will - which is also known as Utilitarianism. Nietzsche believed that man should live the life of eternal recurrence and to just do what you want and not regret anything that you do. This differs from Socrates' who spent most of his time trying to work out WHY things happened the way they did and wanted to explain WHY anything happened, Nietzsche hated Socrates' philosophies. 

Ubermensch - in 1883 book - 'Thus Spoke Zarathustra'

German for "Overman, Overhuman, Above-Human, Superman"

The Ubermensch is a goal set for humanity and the Ubermensch have no fear.
Someone who overcomes a perspective and is capable of creating a new perspective without forcing the view upon others.

Schopenhauer

• German Idealism of the 19th century
• He was contemporary of Hegel - (he hated Hegel)
• Immaterialism - the world does not exist independently of perception
• He is similar to Kant 
• Looks at Kant's idea - dual nature of objects and their formless, potential or 'noumenal' nature.
• Kant - each object can be a 'thing in itself' (each object with its own noumenal and phenomenal nature)
• Schopenhauer - only one undifferentiated 'thing in itself' 
• Concept of 'will' for Schopenhauer is the same (according to Nietzsche) as 'eternal fire' is to Heraclitus 
• Nietzsche - 'Will to power' 
• "Will" in Schopenhauer was heavily criticised as being a poor choice of word due to possible confusion with the idea of free will in debates about ethics, personality, morals 
• Schopenhauer - only Western Philosopher to draw parallels between Western and Eastern philosophy.
• He was openly Atheist
• He wanted to understand the world in which he lived - through the 'will'
• He began with the premise of Kant - the way we see the world is from a human perspective and a pre-programmed perspective and a thing in itself is not necessarily what it appears, therefore we need a distinction from appearance.

Marx and the Communist Manifesto

Let's begin with Karl Marx. A great deal of his ideas were worked on with Fredrich Engles.


Marx was born in 1818 in Germany (to Jewish parents) he converted to Lutherism and studied law, philosophy and revolution.
His most famous and influential works was the communist manifesto (i'll go into more detail later) which was written in 1848.
Marx's profession was a journalist and editor for radical newspapers within Europe.


The idea of technological determinism links to the teleological approach to history - history is heading somewhere it will always be developing this leads to Darwin's theory on evolution. Marx believed you could explain everything about society by analysing the way economic forces shape social, religious, legal and political processes. He made socialism scientific - his method was mainly scientific, which he got from Darwin. Marx revives materialism and believed the rational formula for summing up evolution.


According to Engles - Marx achieved a fusion of - Hegalian philosophy (history), British Empiricism and French Revolution.
However, he thought that Hegel's ideas weren't true. He attacks Hegel's dialect idealism/mysticism. He believed that development occurs through the dialectic process - the same but different to Hegel...
basically, Marx thinks that man relate to matter which is the driving force for developing. Marx didn't understand the accepted rubbish conditions of the proletariat - the proletariat had nothing to lose so why didn't they fight?
The Working Class (proletariat) had nothing - no property - which means they have nothing lose and everything to gain.
Marx sees the class struggle through history - master and slave, lord, bourgeoisie and proletariat. 



"nothing to lose but their chains"


Feudalism represented by the landowner,capitalism represented by the industrial employer and socialism represented by the wage earner. - one triad that concerned him 


Capitalism alienates men from themselves and from one another, the barrier between you and what should be natural. - MARX HATED CAPITALISM


Now on to Communism...

it can be described in the dialectic method
Thesis - The bourgeoisie
Antithesis - The proletariat
Synthesis - socialism


Communism came from socialism and the communist manifesto is about 150 years old. It outlines the bourgeoisie as rich,upper class and the proletariat as poor, working class people. The bourgeoisie owned - in means of production and the wages of employers and are in constant battle with the proletariat because there is a clear hierarchy between them - the proletariat are the workers who do not own.


In terms of Marx, he believes that the proletariat have nothing to lose, so why are they not trying to have ownership and status?  - they are only tied down by the class struggle.
The class struggle that is present is a political struggle according to Marx. He believes that eventually the proletariat will rise out of their chains with the tools provided by the bourgeoisie and have status. 


Furthermore, the next part of the communist manifesto defends communism as well as listing a number of ways that society can begin to be a classless and stateless one:

1. to abolish property in land and the application of rent of land for public purposes
2. Income tax
3. to abolish inheritance
4. to confiscate property of emigrants
5. credit within the state
6. to centralise the means of communication and transport in the hands of the state
7. to extend factories and instruments of production owned by the State; the bringing into cultivation of waste-lands, and the improvement of the soil generally in accordance with common. 
8. equal liability of labour
9. gradual abolition of the massive distinction between town and country
10. free education - no child labour in factories

Marx believed communism will be like a garden of Eden, there would be no social status difference of people within different professions. It would be similar to utopia.  

"from each - according to ability, to each- according to need"

He believed that people would chose a profession that they enjoyed, not for money or status and he believed that capitalism made people feel alienated because they do not feel 100% themselves at work and put on an act to fit in. 

Everyone would be equal 100%.

Socialism is the dictatorship of the proletariat. - The bourgeoisie would no longer exist which means no more class struggle and a move towards communism.

Communism does not contain a state - it is non existent - so that we live in the state of nature. This links to Rousseau, Locke and Hobbes who all held views regarding the state of nature.

“Capitalism comes in to the world dripping from head to good, from every pore, with blood and dirt.” 

'The Big Four' - Weber

The four great sceptics -

Weber - power, legitimacy, domination - "disillusion " 

Marx - class, ideology, economics - Bonapartism, Stagnation 

Nietzsche - morality, culture - God is dead (said 1880)

Freud - sexuality, irrationality, sub-conscious - depression, 'ordinary miser' psychopathology, repression

All experience "from a certain perspective"

Max Weber

After Karl Marx there was no revolution and there was a rise of the German state and social democracy. This new state needed bureaucracy which created ranks and social status - rise of the middle class and problems of militarism.

-modern banking system

-state intervetion in the economy (regulation)

-bourgoise values spread downwards

-property ownership dispersed

-imperialism

-WW1 

Weber - everything is accidental.

He is a Kantian and believed humans cannot know the objects in themselves, there is no absolute reality; only a mental picture of reality. There is no truth just honest beliefs of a person or a group of people.

So Weber found four fundamental types of social action

1. instrumental - rational action   (an action carried out  we want to do)
2. value - rational action   (an action carried out because it is good practice)
3. affectual - emotional affirmation/disaffirmation   (an action carried out for an emotional reason)
4. traditional orientation  (an action carried out because society has always done it)

this followed on with three types of domination

1. tradtional
2. charismatic
3. legal - rational (bureaucratic)

Weber says...

Humanity has lost the skills that we used to have - architecture and music - because of bureaucracy. People in bureaucratic societies are are just a very small cog inside an extremely large wheel. We can't get away from bureaucracy, we live and die in a this world - fuelled by bureaucracy.

The Dreyfus Affair and J'Accuse.

For Journalists, The Dreyfus Affair helped a great deal in establishing them.

The defeat at Sedan (1871) and the Paris commune were what came before and resulted in the Dreyfus Affair.
Franco-Prussian War (was the result of the defeat at Sedan) - and was to attempt to unify Germany (Prussian and German states) by growing power and influence of Prussia under Bismark. Napoleon III was captured at Sedan in 1871 after going into war without any allies.
A huge indemnity is to be paid to the Germans by the French and Alsace and Lorraine are taken over by Germany and the French residents took over. 2 million people lived in Paris but were completely surrounded by Germans. With this huge amount of people, there were problems with feeding them, which meant horses, animals from zoos and rats were eaten... YUM.

The Paris commune -
The commune was created 18th March-May 28th 1871.
Lenin called it the "festival of the oppressed".
Marx celebrated it as "the dictatorship of the proletariat".

During the Paris commune it was a communist-style state and social reforms were introduced. Women were important in this with ideas such as - women should have the vote, nurseries (so women could work) and better working conditions. 

The commune was destroyed and 20,000-30,000 people were executed - women were shot in their thousands.

"In Paris everyone was guilty"

The Paris commune was short lived but had a huge impact upon European politics.

The Dreyfus Affair -
Defeat of France in Franco-Prussian war (1871) was still casting a strong shadow.

For France, the army was a main symbol of their identity, they became very militaristic. France became extremely paranoid and scared of another war with Germany, so they increased the number of spies they had by all European countries.
the affair turns into right against left - The army, catholic church and monarchists ---> Anti Dreyfusards.
                                                         Republicans, socialists, Jews ---> Dreyfusards.

The French army found Dreyfus guilty of Treason after military evidence was leaked. There was a secret court martial and Dreyfus was sent to prison on 'Devil's Isand'.
A man name Esterhazy was tried but acquitted after the evidence was looked at again.
Dreyfus was then tried again but found guilty again even without any evidence and he was released after a pardon but it was kept secret.
After all of this, Journalist Emile Zola wrote 'J'Accuse' saying why Dreyfus was innocent and the trial was all a conspiracy.  However, Emile Zola was tried and convicted of libel, fined and sentenced to prison but thankfully he flees to London.

Anti-Semitism and Nationalism (Lazare) -
A nation is called an agglomeration of individuals having in common their territory, language, religion, law, customs, manners, spirit, historic mission.
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Nations do exist --> sometimes they are organised under the same government but lost language.

Jews do not exist in terms of race but a Jewish fellowship.
The Jewish nation stays strong because of religion, social condition and the external conditions forced upon them.

 in order to be a part of this nation they have to accept that God and the laws derive from him --> Torah outlines the laws of God - which became the laws of Israel.
This leads to their education and traditions being kept which constitutes them as a nation.


Modern anti-Semitism is different to anti-Judaism, it is more self conscious, more pragmatic, more deliberate (fear and hatred of strangers)  Anti-Semitism was one of the ways the peoples would try to reduce individualities -  Jews appeared a danger they did not agree with the nation, their concepts were opposed to the social and intellectual conceptions which constitute nationality.

Jews are not assimilated - they continue to differentiate themselves from those around them. If they are a Frenchman or a German they are also a Jew - not just a Frenchman or a German and they maintain their characteristics as people.
Laws, prejudice and persecution prevented them from being part of wider community - they were estranged.
Assimilation caused friction between Jews from different countries, they kept to their separate communities within a particular country.
Anti-Semitism can come from the point that Jews do not have a Fatherland, they are placed in communities within different nations. (the nation continues if the self-consciousness and consciousness of the community doesn't disappear.)

The Paradigm of Change - Kant, Hegel.

All were German idealists and their ideas were against Hume.

Kant 1724-1804
Kant moved philosophy beyond rationalism and empiricism and he mixed the two theories together.

Kant believed you can know facts through the senses whilst knowing the facts about the form it takes apriori. (agnostic approach)

In comparison, Descartes believed that predicate of thinking is existence ('I think, therefore I am') however, Kant believed existence is not the predicate and existence is not caused by anything else.

'Critique of pure reason' (1781) -Kant's most influential work

Analytic propositions: from the law of contradiction 'a tall man is a man' - if you said a tall man isn't a man it would be contradictory - the predicate is part of the subject.

Synthetic propositions: knowledge through experience. 

Empirical propositions: knowledge through the senses.

A priori proposition: established through experience and becomes certain. 2+2=4 would be one - through experience.  

Hume believed in coincidence BUT Kant says if this is true then science is impossible.

Hume believed you should doubt everything..

Synthetic Analytic Synthesis.

Hegel 1770-1831
Hegel was a historian - he believed history has a purpose and God is working through history towards euphoria.

He believed change is always the only constant and the universal soul is the giest (the universe must have a giest to persist)

History has a form known as the thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis.
In terms of civilisation it would go as follows - Greece: thesis (at the start)
                                                                      Middle ages: anti - thesis
                                                                      The Renaissance: synthesis
                                                                       ||
                                                                        After conflict - reformation

Hegel believed this cycle was to achieve a perfect state - also called - ORGANIC STATE
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thesis - anti - thesis - conflict - synthesis

A tale of two revolutions - Dickens (urban), Cobbett (rural)

The French revolution was a turning point in European politics whilst the Industrial revolution transformed Britain and the world.

1 - French revolution
(GB nearly became Great Scottish Empire)

In 1698 Scotland attempted to set up a colony in Central America, so they put 1/5 of the nations wealth into it BUT this turned out to be a disaster because The Darien colony in New Caledonia had great illness and fever resulting in the Scots being absolutely broke! They had no choice but to surrender to the British - British Empire formed (1707 - Act of Union)

England gained from the French revolution but it was very expensive so Tax was created (1799) to pay off the war.

2 - Industrial revolution
(Naval power = beginnings  of Industrial revolution)

Britain started building empire - India, Singapore, South Africa, South America, Sri Lanka.
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transatlantic triangular trade (slave trade) - very profitable for Britain

In the 16th Century 1 million slaves were transported from Africa to America in exchange for cotton BUT by the 18th Century this became 7 million!!!!

FURTHERMORE

England was the 'workshop of the world' during the time of the industrial revolution and Manchester was the most important place in the world.. (centre of the revolution)

Peterloo Massacre - In Manchester (1819) --> cavalry charged at a 6,000 strong crowd of protesters demanding parliamentary reform. (the vote)

Farming - peasants were forced to leave their owned land.  - Non industrial - industrial transfer

Utilitarianism - the idea of happiness as pleasure and the absence of pain (VERY APPEALING) but what could they do with the poor?
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WORK HOUSES --> occupants slowly died from only just enough food and a lot of work.